Human Physiology (Biol 236)
Exam Outline

It is to be understood that you will have read the corresponding sections of the textbook for lecture topics that we have covered!

Chapter 4, part 1 Outline (Updated 6/6/23)
Neuron anatomy review:
• What is the difference between the 2 main types of neurons, sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) in terms of how information is traveling?
• What does an a somatic motor neuron control versus what an autonomic motor neuron control?
• What are the neuroglial cells of the CNS & PNS, and what is their function? (astrocytes, ependymal cells, schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and satellite cells)
• Know the basic anatomy of a neuron (cell body, nucleus, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of ranvier, synaptic knobs, secretory vesicles, synapse)
• What is the significance of a myelin sheath around axons?
• What is multiple sclerosis? See Clinical App
• What is a pre-synaptic neuron versus a post-synaptic cell?

Binding of neurotransmitter to its cell receptor:
• In neurotransmitter signaling, understand how binding of a neurotransmitter utimately causes ion channels to open, which causes a cell response.
- What happens to a cell when Na+ or Ca+2 channels are open?
- What happens to a cell when K+ or Cl- channels are open?
• With an EPSP, what is the importance of a graded potential and summation?
• With an IPSP?

Know the two basic receptor-types for neurotransmitters:
1. Nicotinic cholinergic receptor for voluntary movement of skeletal muscle cells. ACh, released from somatic motor neuron, binds to the nicotinic cholinergic receptor, opens Na+ channel, and stimulates muscle contraction.
2. Muscarinic receptor for involuntary movement (autonomic) of heart muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
- If for ACh - called Muscarinic cholinergic receptor. Found on heart muscle, smooth muscle, and glands. For autonomic parasympathetic regulation (rest and digest) See more detail below.
- If for epinephrine (adrenaline) - called an Adrenergic receptor. Found on heart muscle, smooth muscle, and glands. For autonomic sympathetic regulation (fight / flight)

Acetylcholine (ACh) signaling: [ACh controls PARASYMPATHETIC BODY RESPONSES - REST & DIGEST]
• Understand how acetylcholine (ACh) can both stimulate or inhibit based on what receptor it binds to, and what ion channel opens.
Under Parasympathetic regulation:
- What happens when ACh binds to muscarinic cholinergic receptors on heart, smooth muscle of bronchioles, smooth muscle and glands of GI tract, smooth muscle of arterioles of GI tract. What ion channels would be opened in heart muscle to relax it, or GI smooth muscle to stimulate it?

Neurotransmitter removal systems:
• Be able to explain these removal systems that remove neurotransmitters from the synapse: enzyme degradation and reuptake
• What neurotransmitter(s) does the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (ACh-E) and monoamineoxidase (MAO) break down?
• What does an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (ACh-EI) do to levels of ACh?

• What are some agents that are ACh agonists by acting as an ACh-EI? (organophosphate pesticides, permethrin insecticides, sarin gas)
• How is tetanus toxin an ACh agonist?
• Know how the following "toxins"are ACh antagonists (Ex. like botulism, paralytic shellfish poisoning, and Pufferfish poisoning)
• What are the symptoms of cholinergic syndrome? Know DUMBBELSS!
• What are some treatments for cholinergic syndrome (2 Pam, Atropine, Valium) and how do they work?
• How is ACh signaling abnormal in myasthenia gravis and Alzheimer's disease? With Alzheimer's, what is an additional role of glutamate?

Clinical Apps and additional reading (either online or within powerpoint):
- Nerve (sarin) gas & ACh signaling
- Tetanus & botulism poisonings and ACh signaling
- Myasthenia gravis and ACh signaling
- Valium (benzodiazepine) and GABA signaling
^ End of Lecture quiz 1 material

---

Start of Exam 2 material
Monoamine neurotransmitter signaling:
• Know the basic functions of serotonin
• Know the basic functions of dopamine
• How does cocaine affect the monoamine neurotransmitters systems?
• What does a monoamine oxidease inhibitor (MAO-I) do? What's the difference between MAO-I A, and MAO-I B?

Epinephrine (Adrenaline) signaling: [EPINEPHRINE, OR ADRENALINE controls SYMPATHETIC BODY RESPONSES - FIGHT & FLIGHT]
• Know the muscarinic adrenergic receptors that epinephrine works by during Symapathetic regulation (fight/flight): alpha, beta 1, and beta 2
• Know happens when B1 adrenergic receptors are bound in heart muscle, verus B2-receptors in bronchiole smooth muscle and arteries that supply skeletal muscles. Know what happens when alpha adrenergic receptors are bound in smooth muscle of GI tract, GI glands, and arteries to GI tract. What ion channels are opened up in heart cells, and in GI smooth muscle?
• Review drugs dobutamine, isoproteronol, albuterol, propanolol, and atenolol. What receptor(s) are they an agonist or antagonist (blocker) to?

• What functions do glutamate, glycine, and GABA have?
- Which of these is excitatory and which is inhibitory?
- How does strychnine poisoning affect glycine signaling?
- What is the problem with GABA signaling in Huntington's disease?
- What pharmacalogical drug relaxes skeletal muscles by acting as an agonist to GABA?
• How does nitric oxide work as a neurotransmitter?
> how does cGMP affect penile arteries? What is phosphodiesterase? What is a phosphodiesterase-inhibitor? (especially in drugs like Viagra, Cialis, and Levitra)

Clinical Apps and additional reading (either online or within powerpoint):

- Role of dopamine and the nigrostantial dopamine system in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's
- MAO'Is and Parkinson's disease has side effects
- Cocaine abuse and monoamine neurotransmitter signaling
- Glutamate toxicity in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease

---